For example, the bacteria in the GI tract of Drosophila fruit-flies with a natural diet of rotting fruit are dominated by Acetobacter and Lactobacillus species (98, 101), while the related tephritid Med fly, Ceratitis capitata, feeding on unripe fruits is colonized principally by Enterobacteriaceae, including Klebsiella, Pantoea, and Enterobacter species (21). Nevertheless, there is substantial evidence for extensive paracellular transport of solutes in flying birds and fruit bats. Pigs have all of the same thoracic and abdominal organs as humans. Horn MH, Messer KS. Douard V, Ferraris RP. The reviews by Buddington and colleagues in the early 1990s (49, 50, 54) summarized results for about 12 vertebrate species, and additional work in the past 15 years has resulted in many more studies of developmental changes in digestion and features of digestive physiology, as well as an expanded list of species including more than a dozen fish species (see below), six amphibian species, a turtle (35), five avian species, and a dozen mammals. Phloretin (an aglycone) and phloridzin (its glycoside), members of the flavonoid subclass chalcones, are used as inhibitors of GLUT-2 and SGLT-1 respectively, in glucose absorption studies. Cummings JH, Macfarlane GT. In nestling sparrows fed on a diet containing starch, the gut maltase activity of the birds increased by more than twofold (Fig. (1) that overall digestive efficiency should decline, which it did. Bile salts, which are the active portion of bile in the digestion process, primarily assist in the digestion and absorption of fat but also help with absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and aids pancreatic lipase in the small intestine. Murray HM, Gallant JW, Johnson SC, Douglas SE. In vertebrates, the absorption of lipid hydrolysis products and sterols is dependent on their incorporation into micelles formed in the lumen of the small intestine. Rumen-like methanogens identified from the crop of the folivorous South American bird, the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin). Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies The gastrointestinal (GI) tract of animals can serve multiple functions including digestion, osmoregulation, and protection (e.g., by detoxification or immune function). Kwon O, Eck P, Chen SL, Corpe CP, Lee JH, Kruhlak M, Levine M. Inhibition of the intestinal glucose transporter GLUT2 by flavonoids. Dietary protein and energy as determinants of food quality: Trophic strategies compared. Among humans, the composition varies widely among individuals, and is influenced by age (87, 259), diet (334), and medical condition (161), including history of orally administered antibiotic treatment (232, 305). There was no significant difference in slope between birds and nonflying mammals (n = 46 species and 41 species in birds and mammals, respectively). Felix CR, Betschart B, Billingsley PF, Freyvogal TA. The products of lipid digestion in the gut of the spider Polybetes phythagoricus are taken up by cells of the midgut diverticulum, where they are processed to TAGs and phospholipids and exported via two distinct carriers: a high-density lipoprotein (equivalent to the insect lipophorin) and a very high density lipoprotein that also contains hemocyanin (275). Across species, herbivores tend to have more voluminous mass-corrected digestive tracts than carnivores in fish (136, 379, 458), mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians (248, 419), and insects (94). The STI-senstive trypsim isoforms were produced constitutively, but production of the induced STI-insensitive forms was regulated transcriptionally following ingestion of STI (313). For example, digestion time (and glucose absorption) was reduced when sunbirds ingested nectar from tobacco plants that contain particular alkaloids (426). The midgut amino acid transporters that have been studied in insects belong principally to the Na+-coupled symporter family SLC6. Karasov WH, Levey DJ. Coexpression of ATP-binding cassette proteins ABCG5 and ABCG8 permits their transport to the apical surface. Garland T, Jr, Adolph SC. Bale JS, Masters GJ, Hodkinson ID, Awmack C, Bezemer TM, Brown VK, Butterfield J, Buse A, Coulson JC, Farrar J, Good JEG, Harrington R, Hartley S, Jones TH, Lindroth RL, Press MC, Symrnioudis I, Watt AD, Whittaker JB. The central role of transporters in the modulation of absorption with diet raises important questions about the capacity of an animal to regulate uptake of nutrients with significant levels of passive absorption. Kung L, Smith KA, Smagala AM, Endres KM, Bessett CA, Ranjit NK, Yaissle J. Boudreau F, Rings EH, van Wering HM, Kim RK, Swain GP, Krasinski SD, Moffett J, Grand RJ, Suh ER, Traber PG. Whelan CJ, Brown JS. That's where pigs can play an important role. Improvements in molecular information have allowed better characterization of the changes in particular genes and proteins responsible for differences in digestive capacity. The increased fructose transport activity coincides with increased abundance of mRNA and GLUT5 protein. Competitive inhibition by flavonoid transport does not seem to be the mechanism. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology of Enzymatic Digestion. Other important body systems have significant differences from the adult pig. Antimicrobial properties of plant secondary metabolites. 2). Two processes can mediate increased transporter function: recruitment of preexisting transporter protein in the cytoplasm to the membrane (as occurs for GLUT2 in response to dietary glucose, see Section Absorption of carbohydrates), and elevated gene expression. There are only a few differences between the circulatory system of an adult pig and a fetal pig, besides from the umbilical arteries and vein. Another feature of overall gut design relates to the recovery processes of material(s) from the gut microbiota. From the perspective of the animal, the key benefit of a postgastric fermentation chamber is that the substrates available to the microorganisms are those that are intractable to digestive action in the gastric region. The analysis was conducted on 106 individuals of 60 species from 13 orders of mammals. In this way, at least 50% of ingested cellulose and 80% of noncellulosic polysaccharides are degraded by microorganisms in the human colon, contributing at least 10% of the human energetic needs (103). Santo Domingo JW, Kaufman MG, Klug MJ, Holben WE, Harris D, Tiedge JM. Walgren RA, Lin JT, Kinne RKH, Walle T. Cellular uptake of dietary flavonoid quercetin 4-beta-glucoside by sodium-dependent glucose transporter SGLT1. Hewson-Hughes AK, Hewson-Hughes VL, Miller AT, Hall SR, Simpson SJ, Raubenheimer D. Geometric analysis of macronutrient selection in the adult domestic cat, Hirayama C, Konno K, Wasano N, Nakamura M. Differential effects of sugar-mimic alkaloids in mulberry latex on sugar metabolism and disaccharidases of Eri and domesticated silkworms: Enzymatic adaptation of. Erickson RH, Gum JR, Jr, Lindstrom MM, McKean D, Kim YS. Cattle and sheep have three additional chambers before the true stomach. However, modeling approaches have still guided research and enhanced understanding in some taxa that have specialized features of digestion that are not necessarily captured in the simplest reactor models. S represents those starved for 6, 24, 48, and 72 h. RF represents larvae starved for half the time period indicated and then fed the latter half of the time period indicated. Unlike chylomicrons, lipophorin is not synthesized in enterocytes; it is localized in the hemolymph (blood), where it acts as a shuttle delivering lipids to the fat body and other organs. Huvet A, Jeffroy F, Fabioux C, Daniel JY, Quillien V, Van Wormhoudt A, Moal J, Samain JF, Boudry P, Pouvreau S. Association among growth, food consumption-related traits and amylase gene polymorphism in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Efflux transporters as a novel herbivore countermechanism to plant chemical defenses. government site. Absorption of these vitamins is predominantly passive and, unlike other essential nutrients, it is not upregulated in response to low dietary supply (418). Also, in a study with cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum), the birds were not affected by the toxic glycoside, amygdalin, when administered orally, excreting it intact (422). In many cases, the compounds have been shown to inhibit enzymatic breakdown in vitro, and effects are also manifest at the whole animal level in reduced nutrient digestibility and/or growth rate [e.g., references (212, 344, 473)]. The GI tracts of animals, including herbivorous mammals and wood-feeding insects, are recognized as cellulose-rich environments that are currently being targeted in gene discovery projects for biofuels development and other industrial purposes (130). Furthermore, AMY1 copy number and salivary amylase protein levels in humans generally are at least three times higher than in chimpanzees and bonobos, whose diets are composed predominantly of fruit and leaves that contain much less starch than the diets of most human populations. The transport of nutrients that are metabolized for energy production increase with increasing dietary supply, while those mediating the uptake of essential but non energy-yielding nutrients tend to decrease with increasing dietary supply. Lehman RM, Lundgren JG, Petzke LM. Corpe CP, Burant CF. There are four basic types of digestive systems: monogastric, avian, rumi- nant, and pseudo-ruminant. The insertion of GLUT2 into the apical membrane is mediated by the detection of luminal glucose by the TIR2/3 receptors and Ca2+ signaling, as described in text. Effect of short-term feed restriction, realimentation and overfeeding on growth of Song Thrush (, Kottra G, Daniel H. Flavonoid glycosides are not transported by the human Na+/glucose transporter when expressed in. In contrast to the house sparrow, the intestinal maltase activity of zebra finch was not responsive to variation in dietary starch content (45). For example, 75% of the cellulase activity in the GI tract of the termite Mastotermes darwiniensis can be assigned to microbial fermentation by protist symbionts in the hind gut, with the remainder accounted for by intrinsic enzymes in the midgut and salivary glands (453); but the cellulase activity in the GI tract of the beetle Tenebrio molitor was unaffected by elimination of the microbiota (174), indicating that the observed microbial fermentation does not make a necessary contribution to cellulose digestion. Likewise, when hexose transport in jejunal brush border membrane vesicles declined with age in older chicks, the site density of SGLT1 declined in parallel but SGLT1 mRNA did not change significantly (16). Li H, Gilbert ER, Zhang Y, Crasta O, Emmerson D, Webb KE, Wong EA. Brzek P, Kohl KD, Caviedes-Vidal E, Karasov WH. A physiologic function for alkaline phosphatase: Endotoxin detoxification. Diamond JM, Karasov WH. Geurden I, Aramendi M, Zambonino-Infante J, Panserat S. Early feeding of carnivorous rainbow trout (, Ghadamyari M, Hosseininaveh V, Sharifi M. Partial biochemical characterization of alpha- and beta-glucosidases of lesser mulberry pyralid, Glyphodes pyloalis Walker (Lep. Kinetic analyses of nutrient uptake indicate that the diet-dependent variation in sugar and amino acids transporter activity is mediated predominantly by changes in the density of transporters on the apical membrane (149). This capability can be linked to the abundance of D-amino acids in the cell walls of bacteria, which are an important component of the natural diet of Drosophila species. Effective discrimination of these alternatives requires simultaneous measurement of all the variables, as has been done in a number of studies with birds and mammals (248). Allometry and ecology of feeding behavior and digestive capacity in herbivores: A review. Nutrient absorption continues into the final section of the small intestine, the ileum. This design minimizes the competition between animal and resident microorganisms for ingested nutrients that can be processed readily by the animal. The digestive lysozyme of hoatzins has a different genetic origin from that found in colobine monkeys and ruminants. Effect on colonic fermentation and faecal output. Ikeda I, Tanaka K, Sugano M, Vahouny GV, Gallo LL. Learn more about Biochek's diagnostic offering, Tips for diagnosis, prevention and control. Ferreira C, Marana SR, Terra WR. Phylogenetic analysis assigns the mammalian GLUT2 to a clade that includes three further mammalian GLUTs (GLUT1, 3, and 4) and invertebrate, but no nonmetazoan, GLUTs, suggesting that this group of transporters may have evolved in the basal metazoans or immediate ancestors of animals (472). This role is illustrated vividly by patients with mutations in ABCG5/G8, resulting in elevated absorption and plasma levels of sitosterol, a condition known as sitosterolemia. These can be readily absorbed in the large intestine. German DP. These animals mature and develop a greater appetite. Some are thought to play an important role in human health, variously acting as antioxidants or antimicrobials, modifying hormone titers, and interfering with DNA synthesis. Because of this, it has been argued that they are not typically disruptors of intrinsic breakdown processes in either insects (26) or monogastric mammals (409). 10), and the resultant amino acids are exported via transporters on the basolateral membrane (Table 3). When digestive features are not well matched to dietary substrate(s), digestion is inefficient. Any nutritional imbalance that might arise from this strategy is widely considered to be corrected postabsorption, so that the retention and use of certain nutrients are optimized, while surplus metabolites can be eliminated (249, 416).
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